Developing the physical fitness of children: A systematic scoping review of pedagogy in research

Despite a robust body of evidence supporting both the need for and the effectiveness of physical fitness interventions in children aged 5–11, global fitness levels in this age group continue to decline. This systematic scoping review interrogates a critical, often overlooked dimension of this paradox: the pedagogy of fitness intervention design and delivery. By analysing 106 primary research studies, the review exposes a consistent pattern. Interventions are predominantly highly structured (89%), rarely foster a mastery-oriented motivational climate (only 11%), and fail to report practitioner behaviours (65%). While most interventions yielded positive fitness outcomes, these gains were achieved without the use of pedagogical strategies known to support engagement, autonomy, and long-term adherence in children. This suggests that current approaches may achieve short-term physiological improvements but are limited in cultivating the motivational and developmental conditions necessary for sustained impact. The findings underscore a pressing need for future research to move beyond the "what" of fitness programming and rigorously address the "how." Embedding and explicitly reporting pedagogical elements—such as supportive practitioner behaviours, autonomy-supportive structures, and mastery climates—could transform fitness interventions into developmentally appropriate, engaging, and sustainable experiences for children. Without this shift, we risk perpetuating interventions that are effective in the lab but ineffective in life.